Transcribed from The Columbia Encyclopedia 1940 edition. [compiled and
edited at Columbia University, Clarke F. Ansley editor in chief MCMXLI]
[with information up to 1939]
[f=C4=83sh '=C4=ACz-m] [from Ital. fascio. plural fasci,=3Dbundle, union;=
undoubtedly
influenced by Fasces the ancient Roman symbol of the power of the state o=
ver
life and limb. The fasces were cylindrical bundles of wooden rods tied
tightly together. In the bundle there was usually an axe with the edge
pointing outward. A good representation of the fasces may be seen on the
reverse of an American dime, on which it represents union or the power of=
the state. The fasces were borne by guards called lictors before praetors=
,
consuls, dictators, and emperors. The number of lictors was governed by t=
he
rank of the magistrate.
Fascism took the form of a national political, economic, social, and
cultural organization typified in Italy under the dictator****p of Benito
Mussolini. Fascism has much in common with the Russian type of communism.=
Both elevate the state as paramount and extend state control into all soc=
ial
expression; both discard parliamentary rule and yet retain remnants of a
representative system; both decry "liberal" doctrines; both advocate the
rule of a single party in an authoritarian state, with a firm suppression=
of
its opponents.
=46rom the birth of fascism, one of the few set items of its program has =
been
irreconcilable opposition to communism and socialism. Fascism is essentia=
lly
and fundamentally nationalist; communism is at least in theory
international. Fascism, as it has developed, has become a bulwark of
capitalism, regulated and chastened, but still capitalism, and the classe=
s
of society have have been maintained; communism seeks the supremacy of th=
e
proletariat and the destruction of cl*****. Fascism has, in general, plac=
ed
an emphasis on the spiritual, and, to some extent, the religious, aspect =
of
life, while communism is thoroughly economic and militantly opposed to re=
ligion.
In Italy the fascist movement arose in 1919 with Mussolini's formation of=
the first of the Fasci di Combattimento, groups of men prepared to fight =
for
the "awakening" of Italy. The motives that brought men into the groups we=
re
ultimately grounded in reaction to the discontent and depression followin=
g
the World War. Italy had been disappointed in the peace treaties. The war=
had deranged the economic system, and conditions grew steadily worse. The=
foreign policy of the government was ineffectual, and parliamentary rule
seemed im****tant in the face of complex problems. The evils of the day we=
re
laid by the Fascist at the door of the radicals, the "Reds."
The unity and "dynamic" purpose of the Fascist created both centrifugal a=
nd
centripetal forces that work quite apart from logic; men were swept into =
the
movement by enthusiasm; warfare with the radicals increased. With the mar=
ch
on Rome [1922] and the establishment of a Fascist dictator****p, the cause=
triumphed. The full program, today considered the Fascist program, was th=
en
formulated on a groundwork largely adopted by op****tunism. The syndicalis=
t
element was strong and socialism was abhorred. Private property was to be=
respected, but state control of industry was to be practically unlimited.=
The "cor****ative state" was the result. No class struggle between labor a=
nd
capital is tolerated in it; instead, industry is organized into both
vertical [employer with all cl***** of employees according to industries]=
and horizontal [laborer with laborer, as in a trade union] combinations,
thus achieving a complete regimentation under the watchful eye of the sta=
te.
The organization is strictly hierarchic, just as the Fascist party is, an=
d
the threads of influence are gathered into the same hands that hold the
reins of state: industry and the state are, in a sense, one. This ideal
arrangement has not been completely achieved in Italy, but order and dire=
ct
action were introduced, and the system, imperfect though it might be, was=
begun. Education was reorganized according to the Gentile's proposed refo=
rms
with the emphasis ****fted from positivistic to spiritual culture. Because=
most of the people of Italy belong to the Catholic faith, Catholic religi=
ous
instruction is also incor****ated into the course of study [though not for=
ced
on non-Catholics]. Always the state-an almost mystical conception, the
super-body made up of all the Italians of the past as well as the present=
,
with a glorious mission to fulfill in the future-is the prime factor in t=
he
system.
This emphasis on the past and the inculcation of vaguely ethnological
arguments have combined with the antipathies of the movement to give fasc=
ism
the conservative aspect that is only incidental to it. Reactionary
sentiment, strong nationalistic feeling, an authoritarian and "totalitari=
an"
state moving by non-parliamentary means, a strong and somewhat military
party, a dictator****p, and the regimentation of capital and labor under t=
he
aegis of the state-all these are characteristics of the fascist movements=
that sprang up all over Europe and in South America, China, and other par=
ts
of the world.
The defeatism arising from the war, the impasse reached in most
parliamentary governments. and the worldwide economic depression have all=
helped to produce in other countries effects like those in Italy. Youth
movements spread like wildfire; young men, seeking the revitalization of
nations and the clearance of old scores, have banded together in fascist
groups. Fascism, being highly nationalistic, has variant characteristics,=
In
Germany, where the fascistic National Socialists [the Nazis] rose to cont=
rol
under Adolf Hitler in 1933, the movement has a strong tinge of the racial=
or
pseudo-racial feeling. In Austria, von Starhemberg's Heimwehr appeared ea=
rly
and the activities of the German National Socialist brought two fascist
groups more or less into conflict. Early in 1934 a "totalitarian" state w=
as
set up under Dollfuss. The National Socialists have also appeared in Danz=
ig
and have sought footholds in Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and even farther ea=
st.
The G=C3=B6mb=C3=B6s government in Hungary has fascistic aspects. A large=
group of
Polish fascist were brought to sup****t Pilsudski after he had made an
earlier attempt to suppress their organization. An active group of Finnis=
h
National Patriots originated as a fascist organization. In Spain a fascis=
t
group gathered and became increasingly active after the revolution of 193=
1
with the younger Primo de Rivera at their heard. In England a band of
negligible political im****tance gathered about Sir Oswald Mosley. In
Romania, the Iron Guard, a strong anti-Semitic and fascist party, became
increasingly im****tant. In ****tugal, the syndicalist aspect of fascism wa=
s
the central point in founding a party. Sweden, Czechoslovakia, Switzerlan=
d,
and Bulgaria have also witnessed the rise of fascism. More and more over =
the
world the great struggle has been between the "reactionary" and "radical"=
forces of fascism and communism.
Suggested reading: "Capital and Labor under Fascism" Carmen Haider (1930=
)
"The Cor****ative State" A. Pennachio (1927) "The Pragmatic Revolt in
Politics" W.Y. Elliott (1928) "Bolshevism, Fascism and Capitalism" George=
S.
Counts, Luigi Villari, M.C. Rorty, and Newton D. Baker (1932) "A new
Economic Order" ed: Kirby Page (1930)
--=20
C.Kroeger
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